Hinduism is a religious tradition that is still intimately connected to the movements of the celestial bodies, particularly the sun and the moon, and the planets. Unfortunately, most people live in large cities that obscure the night’s sky with buildings, light pollution and smog, so people hardly look to the sky anymore. Consequently, people know little about the movements of the celestial bodies which affects so much of modern Hinduism. Let us examine some of these important wheels in the sky.

The Motion of the Sun

Most people know that the sun rises every morning in the east and sets every evening in the west, but what they do not know is that the sun also has a north/south movement along the horizon. Our urban lifestyle makes it almost impossible to see the horizon, so all we can see is the sun moving over our heads from east to west. On June 21, the first day of summer and the longest day of the year, the sun rises, not directly in the east, but in the northeast. Then six months later on December 21, the first day of winter and the shortest day of the year, the sun will rise in the southeast. This may not sound like a big difference, but if one actually looks along the horizon from the north-east to the south-east you will see that it is a distance of 60 degrees, one sixth of a circle. This means that between the longest day of the year and the shortest day of the year the sun has been rising each day a little more towards the south. The sun has been moving in a southernly course along the horizon. In Sanskrit this is called the sun’s southern course (dakshinayana). Then, from December 21 until June 21, the sun will be moving in the reverse direction, north along the horizon. This is called the sun’s northern course (uttarayana). During the northern course the days are getting successively longer (light is increasing) and during southern course the days are getting shorter (light is decreasing). Actually, when the sun reaches its most northernly point on June 21st and when the sun reaches its most southernly point on December 21, there is about a three week “hanging” or “turning around” period when the sun appears to move very little. Thus the first day of the northern course (uttarayana) is not considered December 22, instead January 14th is the day, and the first day of the southern course (dakshinayana) is not June 22, but July 17th. This north/south movement of the sun is important in Hinduism since all things are considered better if they are performed in light. It is considered more auspicious to move into a house, install a sacred image, start a business, or even to die during the northern course of the sun than during the southern course. Remember the metaphor: the sun equals light, which equal knowledge, which equals consciousness. It is also recommended that temples, homes and businesses open to the east. In Vaastu Shastra the northeast direction is even called God’s corner (isha-kona). It is the best direction because it represents the maximization of light.

The Motion of the Moon and the Planets

Just as the sun moves across the sky in a daily east to west movement, so the moon and the planets also rise everyday in the east and set in the west following the path of the sun. This path of the sun across the sky is called the solar ecliptic. Imagine a huge circle across the sky that the sun follows. Everyday the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, but this is only 180 degrees of this great circle. Below us, in the dark, the sun is continuing to move to complete a 360 degree circle around the earth and then to rise in the east the following morning. This solar ecliptic is the apparent path of the sun. I say apparent because the sun does not actually move around the earth; it only appears to move around the earth from our geocentric perspective.

In a similar way, the moon and all the planets also move in an east-west motion across the sky following close to this solar ecliptic. The moon and the planets are never more than 5 degrees to either side of the path of the sun, and so everyday they rise and set like the sun. You will never find Mars or Jupiter near the north star or near the southern horizon. All the planets follow close along the path of the sun. But there is one main difference between the sun and the rest of the planets including the moon: they all do not rise and set at the same time as the sun. In fact, the moon and the planets each rise and set at different times. The moon, for example, may rise in the east at 10 AM, or 10 PM, or 3 PM or 3 AM depending on its phase. Similarly, Mars, Jupiter or Saturn will rise and set at all different times depending on their positions in their particular path around the sun. So unless one pays attention to the moon and planets, it is hard to notice who is rising and who is setting at any given time, especially during the day when one cannot see the moon or planets. In this way, above our head, there are huge circles moving in the heavens like a gigantic clock. The sun is moving in one great circle, the moon is moving in its circle, and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and all the other planets are moving in their circles above us at all times.

The Zodiac

Each of these separate circles closely follow the solar ecliptic to collectively create a narrow “band” across the sky that we call the zodiac. Divide this band into 12 equal parts of 30 degrees each and we have the 12 signs of the zodiac (called rashis in Sanskrit): Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, and so on.

As a side issue, it is interesting to note that as Hindus we walk around a deity in a clockwise direction and offer incense or a lamp in a similar clockwise direction. This is a symbolic gesture that follows the apparent motion of the sun across the sky as if to always follow the path of light. Similarly, the doorways to temples, homes and businesses ideally open to the east. This is also a symbolic gesture to maximize light. (see Vaastu Shastra)

The Phases of the Moon

Hinduism, from its earliest times, has been aware of the movements of these celestial bodies and has paid special attention to how they affect life on earth. For this reason Hindu astronomy and astrology have played, and continue to play, an important role in Hindu culture. In particular, the moon is most important in terms of the Hindu calendar. Unlike the western calendar, which is based upon the movements of the sun, the Hindu calendar is based on the moon’s cycle, so if one understands the basic movements of the moon and how the Hindu calendar is organized, one can understand a lot about Hindu culture.

Let us assume that a lunar month is comprised of 30 days, (The actual length varies considerably, but averages out to a little less than 29 and a half days.) and let us imagine that this cycle is divided into two equal halves of 15 days each. These are called pakshas. Literally, the word paksha means a wing.( A bird is called pakshi, one possessing wings.) We can translate paksha as “side” instead of wing. One half of the moon’s cycle is when it is increasing in brightness, from new moon to full moon, which is the waxing phase of the moon’s cycle. In Sanskrit this is called the shukla-paksha, the bright side of the lunar month. The second half of the moon’s cycle is from full moon back to new moon, which is the waning phase or the period of decreasing brightness. In Sanskrit this is the krishna-paksha or the dark side of the month. Day by day, as the moon moves from its initial new moon position until it reaches full moon, and then again, down to new moon, we call each of these “days,” a lunar day or tithi in Sanskrit. In Hinduism lunar days are important and they are distinguished from solar days which are called varas in Sanskrit. In the common western calendar, when we speak of the days we mean solar days, but in Hinduism it is important to distinguish between a solar day and a lunar day. A lunar day is shorter than a solar day and starts at a different time. One of the greatest challenges in modern Hinduism is aligning lunar dates with solar dates and these two differences alone create a lot of problems.

You might expect the counting of these lunar days goes from one to thirty, but it does not. Instead, the counting of the lunar days goes from one to fourteen, then the full moon, and then again from one to fourteen and then the new moon. See the diagram above to understand the phases of the lunar month. Thus there is a first lunar day of the waxing moon and a first lunar day of the waning moon, a second lunar day in the waxing phase and a second lunar day of the waning phase, and so on. This numbering system is important because in many cases the festival days in Hinduism are named after these lunar days. One full cycle, from new moon to full moon and then down from full moon to new moon again, is called a lunar month (masa) and like the solar months there are twelve lunar months that are named after the place in the sky where the moon becomes full.

The Lunar Months

From one perspective the movements of the moon makes a good calendar because the moon can easily be tracked as it moves across the sky and because one can readily see the moon’s phases. However, there is a major problem with using a lunar calendar over a solar calendar. Just as the sun falls out of the sync with the rest of the stars a tiny amount everyday so that every four years an extra day must be added, so the moon also falls out of the sync with the rest of the stars. The moon, however, falls out of sync much more and so needs to be corrected a lot more. In fact, the addition of an extra month every 2 and a half years is necessary! The lunar year of twelve months consists of 354 solar days. However, a solar year consists of 365 days. There is, therefore, a difference of 11 days between the lunar year and the solar year. Due to this difference alone, the two calendars move rapidly out of synchronization and in about two and a half years a difference of 29 days is accumulated between the two calendars. Hence, every two and half years an additional month or thirteenth month must be added to the lunar calendar to bring it back into synchronization with the solar calendar. This additional month is called adhika masa, extra month. Some Hindu communities call this additional month, God’s month (purushottama masa) and hold special festivals during this time.

 

The Sanskrit name for the Hindu calendar is a panchanga. Essentially a panchanga records the movements of the sun and the moon, along with other information. Traditionally no religious festival, family event, or even a civic affair would be performed without first consulting a panchanga to know the whether the movements of these celestial bodies was favorable.

The word “panchanga” is made of two parts: pancha and anga. Pancha means five and anga means a part. The panchanga is, therefore, something made of five parts. As a calendar, these five parts are: lunar day (tithi), day of the week (vara), lunar mansion (naksatra), luni-solar day (yoga) and half lunar day (karana). A full explanation of the Hindu calendar is detailed and technical and not necessary for the general reader, but a summary understanding of at least the first three of these parts is worthwhile. For a more detailed explanation, see the Hindu Almanac.

In order to understand the Hindu calendar it will be helpful to first know how astronomers measure the sky. Just as a road map uses miles or kilometers to show distance between cities, so a celestial sky map uses degrees to show distance between celestial objects. Keeping in mind that there are 360 degrees in a circle, it is easy to measure approximate degrees in the sky. Just raise your hand to the sky, and at arm’s length, use your hand to measure the degrees in the sky. See the accompanying illustration that shows how the hand can be used to measure degrees in the sky. At arm’s length, for example, the width of the end of the little finger is about one degree across. Check to see that the full moon is half a little finger in width and therefore can be estimated to be about a half a degree wide. This system is reasonably accurate for men, women and children, since people with smaller hands tend to have shorter arms. Astronomers have used this hand technique for thousands of years to make approximate measurements of the sky. To see how this system can be used to measure a common constellation see the illustration of the big dipper (sapta–rishi) and the North Star (dhruva) to measure the degrees of separation between each star.

Lunar Day (Tithi)

The first element of the Hindu panchanga is the lunar day known as tithi. This is perhaps the single most important element of the panchanga because it is the building block for the lunar month. Just as the sun rises everyday in the east and sets in the west and we call the time between one sunrise and the next a “day,” so the moon also rises in the east and sets everyday in the west and the time between one moonrise and the next is called a “lunar day.” The Sanskrit word for this lunar day is tithi. There are 30 such lunar days in a lunar month and they are sequentially numbered starting from the new moon as well as the full moon. See the diagram that shows the lunar month along with the phases of the moon. Thus, in the moon’s waxing phase, the first lunar day is called new moon (amavasya), the next lunar day is called the first tithi, next lunar day is called the second tithi, the next is called the third tithi, and so forth until the fourteenth lunar day. The day after the 14th is called full moon (purnima). From this point the numbering sequence starts over again. The day after the full moon is the first tithi, the next day is the second tithi, and so on. The important difference being that the second set of tithis belong to the waning phase of the moon while the first set belongs to the waxing phase. Afterwards the cycle repeats itself. In this way thirty tithis make up a lunar month, which is known as a masa. Some parts of India begin the month from the full moon whereas other parts begin the month from the new moon. Today, this lunar calendar is still in use throughout the Hindu world for religious purposes.

From an astrological perspective the various tithis are considered either auspicious or inauspicious for different events. In general tithis on the waxing or bright side of the lunar month (shukla-paksha) are considered conducive to growth, increase and prosperity and would be selected for such occasions as weddings, moving into new homes or starting businesses. Most religious festivals are held at these times and names of the festivals are even named after these tithis. The moon’s waning or dark side (krishna-paksha) is considered favorable for ancestor worship, and in general Hindu festivals are not held during this dark side of the lunar month, but there are important exceptions. See Hindu festivals: Utsavas 

The Day of the Week (Vara)

The second element of the Hindu panchanga is the day, vara. In Sanskrit the days of the week are clearly named after seven of the nine major astrological influences used in Hindu astrology (see Nava Graha):

Sunday, the sun, (ravi-vara)
Monday, the moon, (soma-vara)
Tuesday, Mars, (mangala-vara)
Wednesday, Mercury, (budha-vara)
Thursday, Jupiter, (guru-vara)
Friday, Venus (shukra-vara)
Saturday, Saturn, (shani-vara)

You can still see these astrological influences in the English names, Sunday, Monday and Saturday for the sun, the moon and Saturn respectively. If you examine the French and Spanish words for the days of the week you will see an even greater connection. Astrologically these days are named after these celestial bodies because the influence of that celestial body is said to be prominent on that day. For example, Tuesday, being ruled by Mars, the planet of war, would be a good date to start a battle, but not a good day to get married or move into a new home! Monday (moon-day) would a better day for a marriage.

Lunar Mansion (Nakshatra)

The third element of the Hindu calendar is lunar mansion or nakshatra. The best way to understand nakshatra is to observe the moon some evening. Notice the moon’s position in relation to the background of stars. The next evening, at the same time and in the same location, again observe the moon’s position in relation to the background of stars. You will see that it has moved considerably towards the east. Use the raised hand technique to estimate how many degrees the moon has moved. The moon will appear to have moved about 15 degrees. In fact, the moon has moved 13 degrees and 20 minutes. The region of the sky that has been displaced by the moon’s eastward movement in one day is called a lunar mansion. In Sanskrit this is known as a nakshatra. There are 27 such lunar mansions in the 360 degrees the moon travels in one lunar month ( 13.3 x 27 = ~360). In the Hindu calendar each of these lunar mansions is named after a star or group of stars in each region of the sky. It becomes a little confusing, but this is why a nakshatra is also called a “star.” See the sample illustration of the region of the sky known as Cancer and Leo to view a segment of the sky that includes five nakshatras: uttara phalguni, purva phalguni, magha, ashlesha, and pushyami.

The nakshatra is important in Hindu culture. At birth a person’s horoscope is traditionally made, and one of the most important items to be known is the nakshatra. Many elements of a person’s character are thought to be determined by the nakshatra. (The moon stands for the mind in Hindu astrology.) In many regions of India a person’s name is based on the nakshatra. The first syllable of the name may be derived from the nakshatra. Thus a person’s existence is tied into the movement of the heavens. At the time of a puja or religious ceremony a priest may ask for the nakshatra, or “star” of the person performing the religious service so that it can be recited in the opening statement of the puja called a sankalpa. At the time of marriage, considerations of the naksatras for the both the bride and groom may be compared to check for psychological compatibility.

The 27 nakshatras are grouped into nakshatra “types.” Certain nakshatras, for example, are considered “fixed” and therefore are good for activities than require stability. Moving into a new home would best done on the day of a fixed nakshatra. Some nakshatras are considered movable and therefore would be good for starting a voyage or buying a new car. Other nakshatras are considered cruel and dreadful and would be good for starting a war or litigation against an enemy. In this way, people will often seriously consult a panchanga in order to find the best timing for the type of activity they are considering.

 

Luni-solar Day and Half Lunar Day

The final two elements of the Hindu calendar are highly technical and not generally used by lay Hindus and so I will only give them passing mention. They are important to astronomers and astrologers. They are called Luni-solar Day (yoga) and Half Lunar Day (Karana) and they both have to do with the relationship between the sun and the moon.

In addition to these five parts of the traditional Hindu calendar one other component should be noted, the month (masa).

Month (Masa)

The Hindu year contains twelve lunar months named after the nakshatra in which the moon is full:

Chaitra (March – April)
Vaishakha (April – May)
Jyaishtha (May – June)
Ashadha (June – July)
Shravana (July – August)
Bhadrapada (August – September)
Asvina (September – October)
Karttika (October – November)
Margasirsha (November – December)
Pausha (December – January)
Magha (January – February)
Phalguna (February – March)

Different parts of India start the year during different months. In general the year begins either in the spring time month of Caitra or in the autumnal month of Karttika.

Hinduism perceives time to flow in great cycles called yugas. Time is circular. There are four yugas and depending upon the yuga the duration varies. The four yugas along with their duration in earthly years are:

Satya Yuga       1,728,000
Treta Yuga       1,296,000
Dvapara Yuga   864,000
Kali Yuga          432,000

__________

Total                  4,320,000  One yuga cycle.

I say earthly years because Hindu scripture gives the years as divine years–time according to the calculation of the Gods. Notice that the basic number is 432,000, the age of Kali yuga, and so dvapara is twice that number, treta is 3 times that number and satya is four times that number. One rotation of these four yugas is called a yuga cycle which is a total of 4,320,000 years. A thousand yuga cycles is called a kalpa and therefore a kalpa is 4,320,000,000 years. Time moves on in these great cycles, yuga after yuga, kalpa after kalpa, eternally.

To give an example how such huge numbers are used, consider the lifetime of Brahma, the four headed creator God. Brahma’s life span is calculated according to yuga time. One kalpa is said to be the 12 hours of Brahma’s day, so his 24 hour day is two kalpas in length. That means 24 hours of Brahma’s time is 8,640,000,000 earthly years! His year is 365 days long and he lives for a 100 years. I leave it to my readers to do the math. My calculator does not have enough places to calculate the vast lifetime of Brahma. I am amazed by the size of the numbers that the early Hindu thinkers were dealing with.

Now consider the story of one hairy sage. This is a story taken from one of the Puranas. A hairy sage once showed up in the court of King Indra and when asked where he lived the sage replied that since life was so short he had decided not to marry and so did not to have a home. Indra then asked him why he had such a strange bald spot on his chest where hair was obviously falling out. The sage replied that each time a Brahma died he lost one hair from his chest and this why he has becoming bald. The sage further asserted that once he had lost all of this hair from the death of so many Brahma’s he too would die. And you can be sure he was a very hairy sage! Add to this the idea that within Hinduism there is not just one universe, but endless numbers of universes all with their own Brahmas that come and go like moths rushing into a fire and you get a sense of time within Hinduism. These anecdotes give us an understanding of the massive time frames in which the Hindu mind has conceived of time. Compare this with the Biblical story of Genesis where God created the world in seven days and you see the different conceptions of time between the two cultures.

It is said that we are now living within the Kali yuga, which started about 5000 years ago. Each of these yugas is said to have a certain quality of life. Kali yuga is the worst of times because it is the time of quarrel and deceit. The level of morality and spirituality is greatly decreased and the maximum span of life one can expect is only 100 years. In the previous yuga, Dvapara Yuga, life is said to have been much better. The lifetime of a human being during the Dvapara Yuga could be as much as 1000 years. Life was more vibrant and spirituality was greatly increased. It is described how a human being stood as much as 12 feet tall and how the trees and animals are much larger as well. The Treta yuga was an even better time with the maximum life span as much 10,000 years. Spirituality is even higher, and finally, in the best of times, the Satya Yuga the life of a human being could be up to 100,000 years! The Mahabharata and the Puranas are full of stories from the various yugas describing scenes of people living for huge periods of time. The great sage Vishwamitra, for example, mediated in water for 60,000 years before his meditation was broken by the beautiful Menaka. Their union brought about the famous Shakuntala, the heroin of many famous stories and plays in Sanskrit. Similarly, in many of thePuranas, ten avataras of Vishnu are said to repeatedly appear throughout the yuga cycles. Rama always appears during the Treta Yuga, Krishna appears at the end of Dvapara, and Kalki, the final avatara comes at the end of Kali Yuga to destroy all things and prepare the way for the next Satya Yuga. There are, therefore, many appearances of Rama, Krishna, and the other avataras. This is all takes place within the great cycles of yugatime.