Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda

British Orientalism

British Orientalism (1772 to 1835) was a unique phenomenon in British Indian history that was inspired by the needs of the East India Company to train a class of British administrators in the languages and culture of India. This period of British Indian began in 1772 with the coming to power of Warren Hastings (1732–1818), the first and perhaps most famous of the British governors general of India. This period of British Orientalism marks the formative years of a century of intense intellectual, religious and social change in Bengal that in now known as the Bengal Renaissance.

For the most part, the British Orientalists were a unique group who reflected the eighteenth century ideals of rationalism, classicism, and cosmopolitanism. Unlike many later British officers serving in India, the Orientalists were appreciative of the ancient religious and cultural traditions of classical India. Consequently, they made significant contributions to the fields of Indian philology, archeology, and history. The idea that traditional oriental learning could be combined with the rationalism of the West was the inspiration of British Orientalism. Intellectually it was one of the most powerful ideas of nineteenth century India.

In 1800 Governor General Wellesley established the College of Fort William as a training center in Calcutta for those company servants who would be employed in the field. The idea behind the college was the perceived need to understand Indian culture as a basis for sound Indian administration. In the words of Warren Hastings, “to rule effectively, one must love India; to love India, one must communicate with her people; to communicate with her people, one must acquire her languages.” The College of Fort William became the effective vehicle of British Orientalism in India for the next two and a half decades.

Under the auspices of the College of Fort William, an elaborate and expensive program of literary patronage and research was undertaken. Faculty were trained, language instruction was initiated, an extensive library was established, and books were published in Bengali, Marathi, Urdu, Hindi, Persian, and Sanskrit. The college hired numerous traditional Persian and Sanskrit scholars along with European academics. Over a hundred Sanskrit texts alone were translated and published by the college. Indeed, the effects of British Orientalism on Bengal were revolutionary. The College of Fort William was the first institution of its kind in India to employ the tools of modern comparative philology, textual criticism and historical analysis on a vast scale in conjunction with traditional learning.

The fruits of Orientalism, although intended to serve the needs of company servants and European academics, had a profound impact on Bengal’s intellectual and cultural elite, the bhadraloka. For the first time the bhadraloka gained a systematic overview of its Sanskrit Hindu culture, making them keenly aware of the grand accomplishments of their cultural past.
Ultimately the success of British Orientalism was the source of its downfall. As knowledge of India’s ancient past became evident, Christian missionaries and other colonial interests soon began to wonder in whose favor Orientalism was intended, that of the rulers or the ruled. The Charter Act of 1813 opened the door to a new group of Europeans, the Christian evangelicals, who quickly established themselves throughout Bengal. This new breed of “post-Orientalist” missionaries was the very antithesis of British Orientalism. They viewed Hindu culture as backward and profane. To them the strength of European culture was its Christian foundations. Their goal was to obliterate as much of Hindu culture as possible and to replace it with Christian values, English education, and Western ideas.

By the 1820s the forces of racism and cultural imperialism had begun to overpower the ideals of Orientalism and this unique period in British Indian history began to wane. By the late 1830s British Orientalism as official policy had all but vanished from British India. The struggle that ensued eventually saw the College of Fort William effectively shut down by Governor General William Bentinck (1774–1839) in 1835 when he dissolved the College Council and began to disperse the library. The college was officially closed by Governor-General Dalhousie in 1853.

Although the British Orientalists and Christian evangelicals might seem to have little in common, their combined influence had a powerful effect on the lives of the bhadraloka. British Orientalism lit the fires of Hindu pride, while the attacks of the missionaries and other colonial interests such as the Utilitarians, inspired by John Stuart Mill, created a powerful impetus to reformulate and understand traditional Hindu religious culture in the light of modernity. The Orientalist’s idea that the critical techniques of modern scholarship could be combined with traditional learning was powerful. It is clear that many prominent members of the bhadraloka including Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891), Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894) and Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda (1838-1914) employed the techniques of British Orientalism in their search for Hindu religious and cultural identity. As a result, the works of many of the bhadraloka attempted to redefine and defend Hindu ideals in the light of modern European thought. There is little doubt that the methods adopted by the British Orientalists heralded a new approach to Indian studies that influenced Bengali intellectuals and men of learning well into the twentieth century.

Shukavak N. Dasa

Bibliography:
Kopf, David. (1969). British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay.
Majumdar, R. C. (1978). History of Modern Bengal, 1765 to 1905. Calcutta: G. Bharadwaj and Company.

Copyright © 2002 Sanskrit Religions Institute. All Rights Reserved.

Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda

Michael Madhusudan Datta

Datta, Michael Madhusudan,
Born January 25, 1824, Sagardari, Bengal — died June 29, 1873, Calcutta. Poet and dramatist of modern Bengali literature.

Michael Madhusudan Dutt, or simply Madhusudan Datta as he was known before his conversion to Christianity, was the son of a successful Calcutta lawyer. He is important for his contributions to Bengali poetry. Madhusudan experimented ceaselessly with diction and verse forms, and it was he who introduced amitrakshara, a form of blank verse with varied caesuras, and many other original lyric styles. Madhusudan opened a new era in Bengali poetry.

The life of Madhusudan Datta was a turbulent one. He faced poverty, maltreatment and misunderstanding. Although he was a genius of a high order, he was an erratic personality. Madhusudan is a typical example of one of Bengal’s intellectual elite caught between tradition and modernity. His early conversion to Christianity is indicative of his cross-cultural condition in life.

Madhusudan’s early schooling was in Bengali and Persian. In 1837 he entered Hindu College where most of his education was in English. He remained at Hindu College until age 19 when he converted to Christianity in spite of the stiffest opposition from family, friends and community. Madhusudan was one of the most brilliant students of his class and perhaps the best English scholar of his college. At first Madhusudan’s literary career was directed towards English literature. Later he wrote in Bengali. In 1848 he moved to Madras where he worked as an English teacher. There he published his best and longest poem in English, The Captive Ladie along with other English works. The reception of his English writing was lukewarm.
In 1856 after the death of his father he returned to Calcutta where he began to write Bengali poetry. He remained in Calcutta until 1862 where he married a European woman, Henrietta and moved to Europe to prepare for the Bar. When he returned to Calcutta in 1866 he became a lawyer.

His principal Bengali works, written mostly between 1858 and 1862, include a number of dramas written in prose, long narrative poems, and many lyrics. His most important prose drama, Sarmishtha (1858), is based on an episode in Sanskrit from the Mahabharata. It was well received. His poetical works include the Tilottama-sambhava (1860), a narrative poem on the story of Sunda and Upasunda; the Meghanada-vadha (1861), an epic on the Ramayana theme; Vrajangana (1861), a cycle of lyrics on the Radha-Krishna theme; and Birangana (1862), a set of 21 epistolary poems on the model of Ovid’s Heroides. Though he was a Christian and deeply versed in English literature he never severed his link with Bengali. In particular his poetic genius continued to be deeply impressed by the Radha-Krishna stories.

Shukavak N. Dasa
Bibliography:
Sen, Sukumar. (1971). History of Bengali Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi.
Majumdar, R. C. (1978). History of Modern Bengal, 1765 to 1905. Calcutta: G. Bharadwaj and Company.

Copyright ©2002 Sanskrit Religions Institute. All Rights Reserved.

Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda

Bhaktivinoda, Kedarnath Datta,
Born September 2, 1838, Birnagar, Bengal — died June 18, 1914, Calcutta. Vaishnava theologian, songwriter and religious leader.

Born of a wealthy family of landowners in 1838, Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda grew up in a traditional Hindu household of rural Bengal. He lived in his maternal grandfather’s home in the village of Birnagar (Ula) 60 miles (100 Km) north of Calcutta. There he received a village education. By age 14 he left rural Bengal and moved to Calcutta with his maternal uncle Kashi Prasad Ghosh (1809–1873) a famous patriot, author and newspaper man. Bhaktivinoda continued his education at Hindu College in Calcutta where he became an associate of such noteworthy men as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, his college teacher and lifelong friend; Keshub Chandra Sen, a classmate; Michael Madhusudan Datta, a literary associate; Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, a civil service colleague and eminent novelist; and Sisir Kumar Ghosh, a prominent newspaper publisher in Bengal.

At Hindu College Bhaktivinoda received a Western education and was exposed to the influences of European culture. During this time he became influenced by American Unitarianism through the efforts of Charles Dall. Bhaktivinoda’s presentation of Caitanya Vaishavism shows the influence of such American Unitarians as Theodore Parker (1810–1860). By age 18 he left the ferment of modern Calcutta and moved to rural Orissa to stay with his paternal grandfather, Raj Vallabha Datta. Moving through various low-paying teaching jobs in rural Orissa and Bengal he eventually acquired a government job with the British in the Judicial Service. For the next 25 years he worked as a career civil servant in the Judicial Service where he worked himself up to the position of District Magistrate. During his working years he fathered fourteen children. He retired from government service in 1892. Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda passed away in Calcutta on June 23, 1914 at age 75.

At age 29 Bhaktivinoda became a follower of Caitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), and eventually a leader within the Caitanya Vaishnava movement in Bengal. The title Bhaktivinoda was conferred on Kedarnath Datta in 1886 in recognition of his prominence as a Vaishnava theologian. Bhaktivinoda made a lifelong study of Vaishnava philosophy, theology, and literature. He edited and published over 100 books on Vaishnavism. Some of his major works include five theological works: Krishna-samhita (1880), Caitanya-sikshamrita (1886) Jaiva-dharma (1893), Hari-nama-cintamani (1900), Tattva-sutra (1893) and Tattva-viveka (1893) and four books of Vaishnava songs: Kalyana-kalpa-taru (1881)¸ Aranagati (1893), Gitavali (1893) and Gita-mala(1893). Bhaktivinoda also published a monthly journal entitled Sajjana-toshani between the years 1886 and 1910. He also produced an autobiography entitled Svalikhita Jîvani (1896).

As early as 1880 he sent copies of his works to Ralph Waldo Emerson in American and Reihost Rost in Europe in attempt to export the teaching of Caitanya to the West. By 1896 some of Bhaktivinoda’s English writing turned up in Canada, Britain and Australia. During his later years Bhaktivinoda conducted a preaching program called Nama-hatta that traveled from town and village throughout rural and urban Bengal spreading the theology of Caitanya. He was also responsible for building a prominent temple at the site of Caitanya’s birth at Navadveep.

Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda is representative of an important group of Bengali intellectuals, the so-called bhadraloka that lived during the Bengal Renaissance. The incursion of European education and culture forced many educated Bengalis to face the traumas of modernization that challenged many traditional Hindu beliefs and practices. As a result, many of the bhadraloka, including Michael Madhusudan Datta (1824–1873) and Krishna Mohan Bannerjee, became Christians. Others such as Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–1884) and Protap Mazumdar (1840–1905) become members of the Brahma Samaj. Still others like Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838–1894) found the means to reinterpret their Hindu religious traditions in the light of nineteenth century European thought.

Bhaktivinoda’s spiritual insights divide religion into two constituent parts–-the phenomenal and the transcendent. This allowed him to combine modern critical analysis with the best of Hindu mysticism, Krishna-lila. Instead of relinquishing the modern approach, he utilized it in his writings; instead of rejecting Hindu tradition, he strengthened it.
Bhaktivinoda’s particular synthesis of traditional Hindu belief and nineteenth century rational thought is a particularly important religious and cultural blend. It spawned the development of the Gaudiya Math in India during the 1920s and 1930s and later, in the West, the development of the ISKCON (Hare Krishna) movement during the 1960s and 1970s. As a result Bhaktivinoda is credited as being the great-grandfather of Caitanya Vaishavism in the West.

Shukavak N. Dasa

Copyright © 2002 Sanskrit Religions Institute. All Rights Reserved.

Bibliography:
Dasa, Shukavak N. (1999). Hindu Encounter with Modernity, Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda Vaishnava Theologian. Los Angeles: SriPublications.
Dasa, Shukavak N. (1998). Svalikhita Jivani Los Angeles: SriPublications.

For an in-depth look at Bhaktivinoda’s life and theology: Hindu Encounter with Modernity

 

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Kedarnath Datta

Hindu Encounter with Modernity
An in-depth look at Kedarnath Datta’s life and theology.

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Kedarnath Datta’s Family History

Chapter One of Kedarnath Datta’s Autobiography

The Bhagavata: Its Philosophy, Ethics and Theology 
This is the text of the famous Dinajpur speech given by Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda in 1868. It is one of the few extant samples of English writing that came from the pen of Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda.

Panca-samskara
An article written by Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda about the Vaishnava initiation process.

Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda

The Bengal Renaissance

In 1765 the East India Company took possession of Bengal, Bihar and parts of Orissa from Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor. As a result, Bengal and its surrounding lands became the first regions in India to experience the direct impact of British rule and the beginnings of modernization. For the remainder of the eighteenth century and throughout the early decades of the nineteenth century, the British laid the foundations for civil administration. They established communication and transportation systems, a modern bureaucracy, an army and police. They further instituted law courts, and opened schools and colleges. The nineteenth century became the high point of British-Indian interaction, particularly within Bengal. Historians refer to this era as the Bengal Renaissance—a period of intense cultural and technological advancement as well as a time of great social, cultural, and political change.

The basis of the Bengal Renaissance was East-West contact. With the spread of European colonial power around the world through the agency of the East Indian Company and similar organizations, many regions of Asia, including India, experienced tremendous upheaval to their traditional cultures. Bengal was perhaps the first region in Asia to have its culture radically transformed through this interaction with the West. In Bengal five important influences led to the Bengal Renaissance: the rise of British–Bengali commerce, the introduction of English education, British Orientalism, Christianity, and perhaps most importantly how the Bengali intellectuals themselves responded to these influences.

With the consolidation of political power in India came the rise of widespread trade and the establishment of large centers of administration and business. In particular, Calcutta became the focus of British administration, trade, and commerce. In the process a class of Bengali elite developed that could interact with the ruling British. This was the bhadraloka, a socially privileged and consciously superior group, economically dependent on landed rents and professional and clerical employment. During the second half of the eighteenth century this elite group became permanent residents of Calcutta. Some rapidly acquired fortunes by working as partners with the British. This group included such individuals as Rammohun Roy, Radhakanta Deb, and Dwarkanath Tagore. Later, in the early decades of the nineteenth century another generation of middle-income Bengalis arrived, which included small landholders, government employees, members of the professions, teachers, journalists and the like. This group included such personalities as Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–1884), Bankim Chandra Chattopadyay (1838–1884), Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda (1838–1914), Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Michael Madhusudhan Dutt (1824–1873) to name just a few.

Perhaps the most prominent member of the early bhadraloka, at least on the intellectual front, was Rammohun Roy (1772–1833). Rammohun Roy is often credited with being one of the initiators of the Bengal Renaissance and the father of modern India. While this may not be entirely accurate, it is a fact that his personality and intellect were among the primary factors that influenced the direction of Bengali thinking during the early nineteenth century.

When the British government proposed to establish education through the medium of the regional languages including Bengali, Persian and Sanskrit, Rammohun Roy vigorously protested, insisting that education should be in modern subjects and through the medium of English. In this way the stage was set for the introduction of European ideas to the bhadraloka through the medium of English education.

In 1817, personalities such as Dwarkanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, and other members of the bhadraloka took a major step along the path of modernization by establishing the first institution of Western education in Asia, Hindu College. English was used as the prime medium of instruction. The teaching of Western sciences, philosophy, English literature and grammar, and other Western subjects was the hallmark of Hindu College.

Accompanying the establishment of Hindu College and English instruction was the powerful influence of Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1808–1831), a young professor at Hindu College. Under Derozio’s guidance the liberal writers of England and America – Francis Bacon, David Hume, and Thomas Paine – were introduced to the students of Hindu College, the more radical of whom became known as Young Bengal. Derozio encouraged his students to judge the customs, practices, and the rules of Hindu society according to the dictates of logic and reason alone. As a result, the members of Young Bengal condemned Hindu dietary laws, the authority of gurus and priests, caste divisions, women’s status, image worship, and other traditional Hindu practices. Above everything, Derozio encouraged his students to think for themselves.

Many members of Young Bengal ultimately grew to have a major influence on Bengali society. As the number of English language institutions grew, so did the number of English-educated bhadraloka. Gradually they became a strong and distinct class within Bengali society.

In this way, no other institution even came close to the influence that Hindu College exerted in bringing about the awakening of Bengal to Western thought in the early nineteenth century. Through the efforts of Hindu College more than a thousand young men received education in English before the Government officially introduced its own program of English education in 1835. The influence of these early members of the bhadraloka was indeed behind many of the great changes in religious, literary, political, and intellectual life in Bengal during the early nineteenth century.

British Orientalism was another important of factor that worked to shape the Bengal Renaissance during the nineteenth century, especially on religio-cultural matters. As much as English language education brought the ideas of the West to India, so did the era of Orientalism facilitate the transmission of new cultural attitudes to the bhadraloka. British Orientalism was a unique phenomenon in British Indian history that was inspired by the needs of the East India Company to train a class of British administrators in the languages and culture of India. In essence, the idea that traditional oriental learning could be combined with the rationalism of the West was the inspiration of British Orientalism. Intellectually it was one of the most powerful ideas of nineteenth century India.

Through the researches of the Orientalists it became known that Sanskrit formed the basis of many European languages including Greek and Latin. It also became evident the ancient India had a vast tradition of linguistics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and architecture. That the Mauryas ruled a vast empire and that classical civilization reached its peak under the Guptas, were also significant discoveries of Oriental scholarship.

The fruits of British Orientalism although intended to serve the needs of company servants and European academics had a profound impact on the bhadraloka. For the first time the bhadraloka gained a systematic overview of its Sanskritic Hindu culture, making them keenly aware of the accomplishments of their cultural past.

In direct contrast to British Orientalism came the introduction of Christianity into Bengal. In 1813 the Charter Act opened the doors to Christian Evangelicals who quickly established themselves throughout Bengal and many other parts of India. They viewed Hindu culture as backward and profane. To them the strength of European culture was its Christian foundations. Their goal, therefore, was to obliterate as much of Hindu religion as possible and to replace it with Christian values, English education, and Western ideas. They attacked the very foundations of Hindu religious culture. Thus British Orientalism lit the fires of Hindu pride, while the attacks of the missionaries created a powerful impetus to reformulate and understand past Hindu religious traditions in the light of modernity.

During those times Hindu religious life became vibrant and underwent great change. The impressive durability of Hinduism as a religion and a way of life remained unquestionable. But the educated Bengali elite felt the need of modernizing Hinduism. They wanted to clip off the superfluities and the superstitions for their own benefit. As a result, personalities such as Sisir Kumar Ghosh, Bhudev Mukhopadhyay, and Kedarnath Datta Bhaktivinoda attempted to redefine and defend Hindu ideas in modern terms. Many of the bhadraloka wrote in a way that was patterned after the ideals of British Orientalism.

In the literary realm Bengali literature and drama took on a new vibrancy during this period. Writers such as Michael Madhusudhan Datta and Bhakim Chandra Chattopadhyay experimented with new literary forms. The Bengali novel patterned after English literature developed under the powerful pen of Bhakim Chandra and Kedarnath Datta. Bengali verse attained new heights under the inspiration of Michael Madhusudhan Datta. Bengali drama found new life through the works of Girish Chandra Ghosh (1844–1912). It is significant that traditional religious motives such as the Radha-Krishna stories continued to be used in spite of intense European influence.

In the political field a huge number of debating societies and newspapers appeared. Personalities such as Kashi Prasad Ghosh (1809–1873), Kristo Pal and Sisir Kumar Ghosh openly voiced their political opinions and would not hesitate to use their newspapers to achieve political ends, often in direct defiance to British rule. Ultimately the roots of Indian independence can be traced back to the Bengal Renaissance.

During this period it is a tribute to Bengal’s intellectual elite that they were keen enough to distinguish between the mere imitation of a foreign culture and the changes that they themselves desired to make. In other words, the bhadraloka had no desire to model their society as a copy of British or European society. Instead they wanted to build a distinctively Bengali society more in step with the prevailing trends of modernity and they did so in all areas of their religious, cultural and social life.

Shukavak N. Dasa

Copyright © 2002 Sanskrit Religions Institute. All Rights Reserved.

Bibliography:
Kopf, David. (1969). British Orientalism and the Bengal Renaissance. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay.
Majumdar, R. C. (1978). History of Modern Bengal, 1765 to 1905. Calcutta: G. Bharadwaj and Company.